Additional Elephant Research Sources for Elephant Mountain

Here you will find a collection of research sources that expands on the science of elephants in captivity and offers additional context for topics covered in Elephant Mountain.

Home » Elephant Mountain Book Bibliography and Research Sources » Additional Elephant Research
Additional Elephant Research and Sources for Elephant Mountain

Musth in Bull Elephants

Musth is a heightened physiological state in male elephants marked by surging testosterone levels, increased aggression, and distinct behavioral changes.

  1. Moss, Cynthia. Elephant Memories. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.
  2. Poole, Joyce H. “Announcing Intent: The Aggressive State of Musth in African Elephants.” Animal Behavior 37 (1989): 140-152.
  3. Poole, Joyce. Coming of Age with Elephants: A Memoir. New York: Hyperion, 1997.
  4. Poole, Joyce. H. “Rutting Behavior in African Elephants: The Phenomenon of Musth.” Behaviour 102, No.3-4, (September 1987): 283-316.
  5. Rasmussen, H.B. “Reproductive Tactics of Male African Savannah Elephants (Loxodonta africana).” DPhil Thesis. University of Oxford, UK.
  6. Sukumar, Raman. The Living Elephants. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc, 2003.
  7. Taylor, LA., F. Vollrath, B. Lambert, D.Lunn, I. Douglas-Hamilton, and G. Wittemyer. “Movement Reveals Reproductive Tactics in Male Elephants.” Journal of Animal Ecology 89 (March 30, 2019): 57-67. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.13035

Medical Experimentation Conducted on Elephants

Medical experimentation on elephants once targeted individuals labeled as doomed and involved procedures that would be considered highly unethical and illegal today. Examining this history shows that the tragic story of Tuy Hoa at the Oregon Zoo was not an isolated case and that limited scientific understanding and inadequate elephant welfare standards contributed to these invasive practices.

  1. Brown, Janine L., Ravi Corea, Ashoka Dangolla, E.K. Easwaran, Susan Mikota, Zaw Min Oo, Kushal Sarma, and Chatchote Thitaram. “Management and Care of Captive Asian Elephant Bulls in Musth.” IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group (2020): 60-63.
  2. Fowler, Murray E. “Castration of an Elephant.” The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 4, No. 3 (September 1973): 25-27.
  3. Fowler, Murray E, DVM. Hummingbirds to Elephants and Other Tales: Autobiography of Murray E. Fowler, DVM. Jackson, California: Clay Press Inc, 1999.
  4. Foerner, Joseph J., Richard I. Houck, John F. Copeland, Michael J. Schmidt, H.T. Byron, and John H. Olsen. “Surgical Castration of the Elephant (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana).” Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25, No. 3 (September 1994): 355-359.
  5. Schmidt, Michael, DVM. Jumbo Ghosts: The Dangerous Life of Elephants in the Zoo. Chicago: Xlibris Corp, 2002

The Electrocution of Other Elephants

Unfortunately, the practice of electrocuting elephants to control behavior or reduce aggression was a practice applied to multiple elephants and not limited to Thonglaw, whose story is detailed in Elephant Mountain. These cases highlight the broader history of harmful interventions used in captive elephants.

  1. “Interim Hearing on San Diego Zoological Society: The Care and Handling of Animals and Other Management Issues.” Hearing before the California Legislature, Senate Committee on Natural Resources and Wildlife, Senator Dan McCorquodale, Chairman. Escondido, CA. July 19, 1989.
  2. Frammolino, Ralph. “Elephant-Abuse Bill, Sparked by Dunda Incident, Advances.” Los Angeles Times, June 9, 1989. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-06-09-me-1539-story.html
  3. Montgomery, David. “Ex-Trainer Accuses Circus of Elephant Cruelty.” NBC News, December 16, 2009. https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna34442605
  4. “Riddle’s Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary.” Encyclopedia of Arkansas. https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/riddles-elephant-and-wildlife-sanctuary-4060/
  5. “South Africa Elephant Park Accused of Horrific Cruelty.” Phys.org, May 20, 2014. https://phys.org/news/2014-05-south-africa-elephant-accused-horrific.html?form=MG0AV3
  6. “Zoo Admits Using Illegal Animal Prods.” BBC News, December 12, 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/561671.stm?form=MG0AV3

Training Points on an Elephant’s Body

Trainers historically use specific points on an elephant’s body to exert control and inflict pain.

  1. ASPCA v. Feld Entertainment, Inc. No. 03-2006. United States District Court for the District of Columbia, April 24, 2009.
  2. Berens, Michael. “Elephants are Dying Out in Zoos.” The Seattle Times, December 1, 2012. https://special.seattletimes.com/o/html/nationworld/2019809167_elephants02m.html
  3. Bradshaw, G.A. Elephants on the Edge. Chelsea, Michigan: Sheridan Books, 2009.
  4. Jacobsen, Gary. Deposition, October 24, 2007. ASPCA v. Feld Entertainment, Inc., No. 03-2006: United States District Court for the District of Columbia, April 24, 2009.
  5. Moore, Randall Jay, and Christopher Munnion. Back to Africa. Johannesburg: Southern Book Publishers, 1989.
  6. Moore, Randall Jay, and Christopher Munnion. Elephants for Africa. Auckland Park, South Africa: Abu Publications, 2000.

Elephant Leasing and Sales Contracts

Leasing and sales contracts, first developed at the Oregon Zoo, have become standard practice in captive elephant management. These agreements ensure a steady financial return on valuable elephants over many years, similar to stud fees and contracts used in the horse industry.

  1. Alexander, Shana. The Astonishing Elephant. New York: Random House, 2000.
  2. Berens, Michael. “Portland’s Baby Elephant Belongs to Traveling Show.” The Seattle Times, December 4, 2012. https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/portlands-baby-elephant-belongs-to-traveling-show/
  3. Berens, Michael. “Portland Zoo Vows Elephant Calf Will Stay Put – Even if They Have to Buy Her.” The Seattle Times, December 4, 2012. https://special.seattletimes.com/o/html/localnews/2019829395_elephant05m.html
  4. Berens, Michael. “Elephants are Dying Out in Zoos.” The Seattle Times, December 1, 2012. https://special.seattletimes.com/o/html/nationworld/2019809167_elephants02m.html
  5. “Elephant Might Go to Portland.” The Columbian (Vancouver, Washington), August 14, 1979, p. 10.
  6. Federman, Stan. “Elephant Bite Not Sans Bright Side.” The Sunday Oregonian, July 15, 1984, p. 56.
  7. “Oregon Zoo Buys Elephants for $400K.” Oregon Business, February 11, 2013. https://oregonbusiness.com/8825-oregon-zoo-buys-elephants-for-400k/
  8. McIntosh, Jay. “Elephants: Ken Berry had Tough Job Finding Home for Beasts.” The Daily News (Longview, Washington), November 21, 1979.
  9. Mesh, Aaron. “12 Mammals That Matter to the Oregon Zoo.” Willamette Week, May 28, 2014, pp. 12-19.
  10. Richards, Leverett. “Zoo’s New Elephant Pen Opens.” The Sunday Oregonian, April 27, 1980, p. 53.
  11. “Newborn Male Elephant Fine.” The Oregonian, October 3, 1982, p. 23.
  12. Richards, Leverett. “Dream For Sale … If You Want Elephants.” The Oregonian, February 6, 1980, p. 28.
  13. Richards, Leverett. “Tonga Joins Elephant Herd at Washington Park Zoo.” The Oregonian, November 20, 1979, p. 54.
  14. Richards, Leverett. “New Bull Takes Charge at Zoo.” The Oregonian, December 6, 1979, p. 33.
  15. Schmidt, Michael, DVM. Jumbo Ghosts: The Dangerous Life of Elephants in the Zoo. Chicago: Xlibris Corp, 2002.
  16. Sheridan, Tom. “The Elephants Not in the Room: As Culture Shifts from Using the Creatures in Circuses and Elsewhere, Family’s Livelihood Uncertain.” The Orange County Register (Santa Ana, California), May 15, 2015. https://www.ocregister.com/2015/05/15/the-elephants-not-in-the-room-as-culture-shifts-from-using-the-creatures-in-circuses-and-elsewhere-familys-livelihood-uncertain/

History of K–ing Young Male Elephants in Captivity

The practice of k–ing young male elephants in captivity has a long history, reflecting the challenges of managing bull elephants in confined settings. Understanding this background helps explain why so few males survive past the age of 20 (even today), and why managing captive males remains a critical issue.

  1. Alexander, Shana. “Belle’s Baby 225 Pounds and All Elephant.” Life Magazine, May 11, 1962, pp. 104-120.
  2. Alexander, Shana. The Astonishing Elephant. New York: Random House, 2000.
  3. Foerner, Joseph J., Richard I. Houck, John F. Copeland, Michael J. Schmidt, H.T. Byron, and John H. Olsen.
  4. “Surgical Castration of the Elephant (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana).” Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25, No. 3 (September 1994): 355-359.
  5. Fowler, Murray E. “Castration of an Elephant.” The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 4, No. 3 (September 1973): 25-27.
  6. Fowler, Murray E, DVM. Hummingbirds to Elephants and Other Tales: Autobiography of Murray E. Fowler, DVM. Jackson, California: Clay Press Inc, 1999.
  7. Lewis, George “Slim,” and Byron Fish. I Loved Rogues: The Life of an Elephant Tramp. Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, 1978.
  8. Maberry, Matthew, Patricia Maberry, and Michelle Trappen. Packy & Me. Beaverton, Oregon: Maberry Press, 2011.
  9. Crandall, Melissa. Elephant Speak: A Devoted Keeper’s Life Among the Herd. Portland, Oregon: Ooligan Press, 2020.
  10. McIntosh, Jay. “Elephants: Ken Berry had Tough Job Finding Home for Beasts.” The Daily News (Longview, Washington), November 21, 1979.
  11. Schmidt, Michael, DVM. Jumbo Ghosts: The Dangerous Life of Elephants in the Zoo. Chicago: Xlibris Corp, 2002.
  12. Sukumar, Raman. The Living Elephants. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc, 2003.

Learned Helplessness

Repeated exposure to uncontrollable situations causes people or animals to stop trying to escape pain or punishment, which results in a serious and sudden decline in mental health.

  1. Ackerman, Courtney. “Learned Helplessness: Seligman’s Theory of Depression.” Positive Psychology, March 2, 2018. https://positivepsychology.com/learned-helplessness-seligman-theory-depression-cure/
  2. Bradshaw, Gay. 2010. Elephants on the Edge. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  3. Santos, Cristiano Valerio dos, Tuane Gehm, and Maira Helena Leite Hunziker. “Learned Helplessness in the Rat: Effect of Response Topography in a Within-Subject Design.” Behavioral Processes 86 (2011): 178-183.
  4. Seligman M.E., G. Beagley. “Learned Helplessness in the Rat.” Journal of Comparative Psychology 88, No.2 (1975): 534-541. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0076430
  5. Seligman, Martin E.P., and Steven F. Maier. Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.