Additional Elephant Research Sources for Elephant Mountain

This is a collection of additional elephant research sources that didn’t fit neatly into a specific category. It primarily covers captive elephant research but also touches on wild elephant behavior. These sources helped me understand why keeping elephants in captivity is so incredibly difficult—and why their suffering runs deeper than I ever imagined.

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Black graphic outline of an elephant with tusks on a bright blue background with the text "Additional Elephant Research" - exploring how captive elephants are trained in captivity.

Musth in Bull Elephants

Musth is a heightened physiological state in male elephants marked by surging testosterone levels, increased aggression, and distinct behavioral changes. This is the condition the two bull elephants were in when they k–ed both Morgan and Eloise.

  1. Moss, Cynthia. Elephant Memories. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.
  2. Poole, Joyce H. “Announcing Intent: The Aggressive State of Musth in African Elephants.” Animal Behavior 37 (1989): 140-152.
  3. Poole, Joyce. Coming of Age with Elephants: A Memoir. New York: Hyperion, 1997.
  4. Poole, Joyce. H. “Rutting Behavior in African Elephants: The Phenomenon of Musth.” Behaviour 102, No.3-4, (September 1987): 283-316.
  5. Rasmussen, H.B. “Reproductive Tactics of Male African Savannah Elephants (Loxodonta africana).” DPhil Thesis. University of Oxford, UK.
  6. Sukumar, Raman. The Living Elephants. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc, 2003.
  7. Taylor, LA., F. Vollrath, B. Lambert, D.Lunn, I. Douglas-Hamilton, and G. Wittemyer. “Movement Reveals Reproductive Tactics in Male Elephants.” Journal of Animal Ecology 89 (March 30, 2019): 57-67. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.13035

Medical Experimentation Conducted on Elephants

The act of conducting medical experiments on captive elephants would be considered highly unethical and illegal today. Examining this history shows that the tragic story of Tuy Hoa at the Oregon Zoo, and the medical experimentation she was subjected to, was far from an isolated case. Limited scientific understanding and inadequate elephant welfare standards made such invasive practices not just possible, but routine.

  1. Brown, Janine L., Ravi Corea, Ashoka Dangolla, E.K. Easwaran, Susan Mikota, Zaw Min Oo, Kushal Sarma, and Chatchote Thitaram. “Management and Care of Captive Asian Elephant Bulls in Musth.” IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group (2020): 60-63.
  2. Fowler, Murray E. “Castration of an Elephant.” The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 4, No. 3 (September 1973): 25-27.
  3. Fowler, Murray E, DVM. Hummingbirds to Elephants and Other Tales: Autobiography of Murray E. Fowler, DVM. Jackson, California: Clay Press Inc, 1999.
  4. Foerner, Joseph J., Richard I. Houck, John F. Copeland, Michael J. Schmidt, H.T. Byron, and John H. Olsen. “Surgical Castration of the Elephant (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana).” Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25, No. 3 (September 1994): 355-359.
  5. Schmidt, Michael, DVM. Jumbo Ghosts: The Dangerous Life of Elephants in the Zoo. Chicago: Xlibris Corp, 2002

The Electrocution of Other Elephants

The practice of electrocuting elephants to control their behavior or reduce aggression was applied to multiple elephants across time, and not limited just to Morgan’s elephant (Packy’s father) Thonglaw, in Elephant Mountain. The following sources highlight this broader history.

  1. “Interim Hearing on San Diego Zoological Society: The Care and Handling of Animals and Other Management Issues.” Hearing before the California Legislature, Senate Committee on Natural Resources and Wildlife, Senator Dan McCorquodale, Chairman. Escondido, CA. July 19, 1989.
  2. Frammolino, Ralph. “Elephant-Abuse Bill, Sparked by Dunda Incident, Advances.” Los Angeles Times, June 9, 1989. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-06-09-me-1539-story.html
  3. Montgomery, David. “Ex-Trainer Accuses Circus of Elephant Cruelty.” NBC News, December 16, 2009. https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna34442605
  4. “Riddle’s Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary.” Encyclopedia of Arkansas. https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/riddles-elephant-and-wildlife-sanctuary-4060/
  5. “South Africa Elephant Park Accused of Horrific Cruelty.” Phys.org, May 20, 2014. https://phys.org/news/2014-05-south-africa-elephant-accused-horrific.html?form=MG0AV3
  6. “Zoo Admits Using Illegal Animal Prods.” BBC News, December 12, 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/561671.stm?form=MG0AV3

Training Points on an Elephant’s Body

Trainers historically use specific points on an elephant’s body to exert control and inflict pain.

  1. ASPCA v. Feld Entertainment, Inc. No. 03-2006. United States District Court for the District of Columbia, April 24, 2009.
  2. Berens, Michael. “Elephants are Dying Out in Zoos.” The Seattle Times, December 1, 2012. https://special.seattletimes.com/o/html/nationworld/2019809167_elephants02m.html
  3. Bradshaw, G.A. Elephants on the Edge. Chelsea, Michigan: Sheridan Books, 2009.
  4. Jacobsen, Gary. Deposition, October 24, 2007. ASPCA v. Feld Entertainment, Inc., No. 03-2006: United States District Court for the District of Columbia, April 24, 2009.
  5. Moore, Randall Jay, and Christopher Munnion. Back to Africa. Johannesburg: Southern Book Publishers, 1989.
  6. Moore, Randall Jay, and Christopher Munnion. Elephants for Africa. Auckland Park, South Africa: Abu Publications, 2000.

Elephant Leasing and Sales Contracts

Leasing and sales contracts, first developed at the Oregon Zoo, have become standard practice in the captive elephant industry. These agreements ensure a steady financial return on valuable elephants over many years, similar to stud fees and contracts used with prized horses.

  1. Alexander, Shana. The Astonishing Elephant. New York: Random House, 2000.
  2. Berens, Michael. “Portland’s Baby Elephant Belongs to Traveling Show.” The Seattle Times, December 4, 2012. https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/portlands-baby-elephant-belongs-to-traveling-show/
  3. Berens, Michael. “Portland Zoo Vows Elephant Calf Will Stay Put – Even if They Have to Buy Her.” The Seattle Times, December 4, 2012. https://special.seattletimes.com/o/html/localnews/2019829395_elephant05m.html
  4. Berens, Michael. “Elephants are Dying Out in Zoos.” The Seattle Times, December 1, 2012. https://special.seattletimes.com/o/html/nationworld/2019809167_elephants02m.html
  5. “Elephant Might Go to Portland.” The Columbian (Vancouver, Washington), August 14, 1979, p. 10.
  6. Federman, Stan. “Elephant Bite Not Sans Bright Side.” The Sunday Oregonian, July 15, 1984, p. 56.
  7. “Oregon Zoo Buys Elephants for $400K.” Oregon Business, February 11, 2013. https://oregonbusiness.com/8825-oregon-zoo-buys-elephants-for-400k/
  8. McIntosh, Jay. “Elephants: Ken Berry had Tough Job Finding Home for Beasts.” The Daily News (Longview, Washington), November 21, 1979.
  9. Mesh, Aaron. “12 Mammals That Matter to the Oregon Zoo.” Willamette Week, May 28, 2014, pp. 12-19.
  10. Richards, Leverett. “Zoo’s New Elephant Pen Opens.” The Sunday Oregonian, April 27, 1980, p. 53.
  11. “Newborn Male Elephant Fine.” The Oregonian, October 3, 1982, p. 23.
  12. Richards, Leverett. “Dream For Sale … If You Want Elephants.” The Oregonian, February 6, 1980, p. 28.
  13. Richards, Leverett. “Tonga Joins Elephant Herd at Washington Park Zoo.” The Oregonian, November 20, 1979, p. 54.
  14. Richards, Leverett. “New Bull Takes Charge at Zoo.” The Oregonian, December 6, 1979, p. 33.
  15. Schmidt, Michael, DVM. Jumbo Ghosts: The Dangerous Life of Elephants in the Zoo. Chicago: Xlibris Corp, 2002.
  16. Sheridan, Tom. “The Elephants Not in the Room: As Culture Shifts from Using the Creatures in Circuses and Elsewhere, Family’s Livelihood Uncertain.” The Orange County Register (Santa Ana, California), May 15, 2015. https://www.ocregister.com/2015/05/15/the-elephants-not-in-the-room-as-culture-shifts-from-using-the-creatures-in-circuses-and-elsewhere-familys-livelihood-uncertain/

History of K–ing Young Male Elephants in Captivity

The practice of k–ing young male elephants in captivity has a long history, reflecting the challenges of managing bull elephants in confined settings. Understanding this background helps explain why so few males survive past the age of 20 (even today), and why managing captive males remains a critical issue.

  1. Alexander, Shana. “Belle’s Baby 225 Pounds and All Elephant.” Life Magazine, May 11, 1962, pp. 104-120.
  2. Alexander, Shana. The Astonishing Elephant. New York: Random House, 2000.
  3. Foerner, Joseph J., Richard I. Houck, John F. Copeland, Michael J. Schmidt, H.T. Byron, and John H. Olsen.
  4. “Surgical Castration of the Elephant (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana).” Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25, No. 3 (September 1994): 355-359.
  5. Fowler, Murray E. “Castration of an Elephant.” The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 4, No. 3 (September 1973): 25-27.
  6. Fowler, Murray E, DVM. Hummingbirds to Elephants and Other Tales: Autobiography of Murray E. Fowler, DVM. Jackson, California: Clay Press Inc, 1999.
  7. Lewis, George “Slim,” and Byron Fish. I Loved Rogues: The Life of an Elephant Tramp. Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, 1978.
  8. Maberry, Matthew, Patricia Maberry, and Michelle Trappen. Packy & Me. Beaverton, Oregon: Maberry Press, 2011.
  9. Crandall, Melissa. Elephant Speak: A Devoted Keeper’s Life Among the Herd. Portland, Oregon: Ooligan Press, 2020.
  10. McIntosh, Jay. “Elephants: Ken Berry had Tough Job Finding Home for Beasts.” The Daily News (Longview, Washington), November 21, 1979.
  11. Schmidt, Michael, DVM. Jumbo Ghosts: The Dangerous Life of Elephants in the Zoo. Chicago: Xlibris Corp, 2002.
  12. Sukumar, Raman. The Living Elephants. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc, 2003.

Learned Helplessness

Captive elephants are broken through pain when they are young. What begins as resistance slowly becomes surrender—not because they lack the strength to break free, but because they’ve learned, through repeated and inescapable suffering, that trying changes nothing. Martin Seligman and Steven Maier called this learned helplesssness, and captive elephants are among the most compelling learned helplessness examples in the animal world. They are large and strong enough to break free, but they don’t. This is why. Seligman and Maier’s research showed that when people or animals are conditioned in this way, when either is repeatedly exposed to situations over which they have no control, they eventually stop trying to escape pain or punishment. And that results in a serious and sudden decline in their mental health.

  1. Ackerman, Courtney. “Learned Helplessness: Seligman’s Theory of Depression.” Positive Psychology, March 2, 2018. https://positivepsychology.com/learned-helplessness-seligman-theory-depression-cure/
  2. Bradshaw, Gay. 2010. Elephants on the Edge. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  3. Santos, Cristiano Valerio dos, Tuane Gehm, and Maira Helena Leite Hunziker. “Learned Helplessness in the Rat: Effect of Response Topography in a Within-Subject Design.” Behavioral Processes 86 (2011): 178-183.
  4. Seligman M.E., G. Beagley. “Learned Helplessness in the Rat.” Journal of Comparative Psychology 88, No.2 (1975): 534-541. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0076430
  5. Seligman, Martin E.P., and Steven F. Maier. Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.